News

Sustainable Progress for the Deepening Somali Conflict

stripathy — Mon, 12 Sep 2011 13:58:09 -0400

Sustainable Progress for the Deepening Somali Conflict

By Communications Task Force Blogger Tyler S. Bugg

At a recent regional summit in Kenya, Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi pushed for creating “corridors of humanitarian assistance” to the aid of Somalian instability. Political instability, longstanding absences in rule of law, and tight control from Islamist al-Shabab militia groups have been undermining the successful delivery of aid packages to some of the most famine-hit regions of Somalia. After the United Nations formally recognized the spreading of serious famine in parts of Somalia, al-Shabab rebel groups have continued imposing stringent restrictions on the delivery of food aid to regions of Somalia. Aid is not reaching enough people.

The tensions in the face of humanitarian and peackeeping efforts in Somalia beckon other questions: What is humanitarian aid? What does it hope to accomplish? It is working?

Even though the crisis in Somalia continues to struggle with what is now known as a decade-long conflict, pledges of humanitarian aid to the country have seen just as much time. Aid from the African Union, several NGOs, and even the United States, have oftentimes never materialized, being driven out of the region after continued threats from Al Shabab and similar groups. Zenawi’s messages for rush-assistance is more of the same; it’s much of why al-Shabab aid interception and political backlash has been reignited.

Continued steps at help have, so far, largely been ineffective. Response to the intensifying Somalian conflict has been, at best, tactical. Food aid is not enough.

To create progress in Somalia, more substantive strategy is needed. Emergency assistance, while perhaps helpful, is only temporary; putting the redevelopment of Somalia’s political, economic, and social infrastructures back in the hands of Somalians is vital to fostering faster and greater progress. Support of initiatives like the soon-to-be Nairobi Action Plan-- investing in the most drought-effected areas with long-term, sustainable livestock-keeping communities-- is a step in the right direction. It’s a step that solutions to conflict local and community-felt. It’s support for their own rights, their own progress.

The more time we waste by avoiding long-term strategy, the more expansive al-Shabab and ally networks spread throughout the globe, and the more the Somali crisis deepens. Somalia needs humanitarian aid of definitions much broader than food; it needs the pressure of knowledge, willpower, and sustainability to make substantive progress. Pushing the United States and other members of the international community to actively support a collaborative and cooperative stance in creating sustainable economic and political growth can be the answer in returning Somalis to the rights and the country they deserve.

The opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the position of STAND.

US Condemns Violence in South Kordofan

stripathy — Fri, 02 Sep 2011 15:10:49 -0400

US Condemns Violence in South Kordofan

By Advocacy Coordinator Maria Thomson

On Wednesday, August 31st, the United States State Department released a joint statement calling for the Government of Sudan to immediately cease its bombings in South Kordofan, and urged both northern and southern Sudanese governments to allow humanitarian access into the region:

The United States remains deeply concerned about reports of continued bombings of civilian areas in Southern Kordofan by the Sudanese Air Force, despite the Government of Sudan’s announcement of a unilateral two-week ceasefire last week. The United States urges the Government of Sudan to adhere to its commitment and to immediately cease aerial bombings, particularly of civilian areas.

We are also concerned over allegations of support from the Government of South Sudan to military forces aligned with Sudan People's Liberation Movement--North in Southern Kordofan. The United States calls on both sides to allow unfettered humanitarian access to affected populations in Southern Kordofan and urges the parties to resume formal negotiations to reach a permanent cessation of hostilities and a political settlement.

The same day, the US Department of State also announced the appointment of Mary C. Yates as interim Chargé d’Affaires at the US Embassy in Khartoum, effective immediately. Yates will join current US Special Envoy for Sudan Princeton Lyman as part of the United States’ diplomatic team to Sudan. Both Yates’ appointment as well as the State Department’s intensifying calls for an end to violence in South Kordofan signal increasing efforts by the United States to apply diplomatic pressure on Sudan and South Sudan for their fulfillment of a peaceful transition into two distinct states.

Why Intervene in Libya, but not Syria?

stripathy — Mon, 29 Aug 2011 11:22:18 -0400

Why Intervene in Libya, but not Syria?

By Advocacy Coordinator Maria Thomson
In the midst of developing situations in Libya and Syria in recent weeks, many policy commentators have questioned divergent US actions regarding the two conflicts which, at face value, share similar traits of opposition movements against entrenched, corrupt dictatorships and governmental violence against civilians. Beyond this convenient categorization, however, lies a number of significant differences between the Libyan and Syrian conflicts which necessitate unique approaches in US policy.

The United States’ decision to engage in the Libyan conflict by way of supporting the NATO-led “no-fly zone” derived from many situational factors. Qaddafi never denied his intent to violently suppress protestors, and issued strong direct statements that he would “show no mercy” to protesters and that “we will find you in your closets.” These were severely startling to many international observers, and reports of atrocities against civilians coinciding with these statements jumpstarted conversations internationally over possibilities for greater preventative action.

Contributing to these conversations were the voices of Libyan civilians themselves, many of whom criticized the US and international community for not taking greater action faster. Secondly, though rebel forces fluctuated in a series of advancements and retreats, Qaddafi’s forces were vulnerable, as he had “deliberately neglected the 50,000-member army to diminish its ability to topple him” and thus made the proposed military and tactical support from NATO more likely to be successful. Additionally, Qaddafi’s administration not only had few allies internationally or locally, but rather had many opponents, including Egypt and Tunisia on its right and left, which had each just undergone democratic uprisings of their own and had little sympathy for Qaddafi. Crucially, the Arab League also endorsed the implementation of a no-fly zone over Libya, contributing to a strong international coalition in favor of the policy. Ultimately, concern over increasing violence against civilians as well as strong pressure from human rights advocacy constituencies led the UNSC to express support for the intervention, which has been working steadily with Libyan rebel forces to date.

With respect to the situational considerations made in deciding to support the no-fly zone, circumstances in Syria were — and continue to be — quite disparate from those in Libya. Where Qaddafi candidly stated his purpose, Bashar al-Assad has refused to admit to violence or human rights abuses against civilians, and is instead claiming to be a reformer and arguing that the government is the victim of a “foreign conspiracy.” This denial has discouraged several UNSC members (notably, Russia and China) from supporting stronger consequences for Assad’s regime, and the countries have alternatively been “simply urging Syrian authorities to speed up their proposed reforms.” Additionally, Russia continues to sell Syria weaponry, citing a lack of international sanctions forbidding it to do so. This source of defense for Assad’s government would make even more difficult a military intervention that would already be struggling against an army much stronger than Libya’s (at 325,000 regular forces and over 100,000 paramilitary) and strongly loyal to the ruling Baath party. Moreover, protesters have not called for any foreign intervention, and their consistently nonviolent demonstrations indicate no place for or interest in foreign military involvement. (Even if a military intervention were to be approved, Syrian protesters’ lack of systemic weapons use would mean that foreign interveners would hold more responsibility in this mission, unlike the supporting role NATO assumed in Libya). Furthermore, Syria has a strong alliance with Iran, as well as relationships with Hamas in Gaza and Hezbollah in Lebanon, so some foreign policy analysts believe resorting to military intervention in Syria could escalate violence and disrupt delicate attempts by the Obama administration to promote Arab-Israeli peace. Tony Badran from the Foundation for Defense of Democracies commented, "For the president to take a forceful approach to Syria, they'd have to admit that the policy of engagement with Syria was an absolute failure and that they have to completely recalibrate the policy."

Given these divergences from the situation in Libya, foreign military intervention does not appear to be an appropriate policy approach for influencing Assad’s regime and mitigating atrocities against nonviolent protesters. Rather, human rights advocacy constituencies are pushing for more severe sanctions for the Syrian government, particularly in the energy sector, serving both to directly limit governmental resources and render continued violence against civilians unprofitable, as well as to set an example for other countries to follow.

The Syria Sanctions Act of 2011 (S. 1472) establishes penalties within the US for any companies that continue to participate in Syria’s petroleum sector, by way of contract prohibition, denial of loans, and blocking of property. This would essentially force foreign companies to choose between continuing operations in Syria or avoiding serious consequences in the United States.

In examining the potential impact of these sanctions on civilians populations, policy analysts at the Genocide Intervention Network/Save Darfur Coalition have determined that the preexisting economic conditions created by continued unrest in Syria have been and will continue to be significantly more damaging than would be the newly proposed sanctions. These economic conditions include:

Unilateral reduction in oil exports, representing a loss of at least US $127 million in total oil receipts over July alone;
The destruction of Syria’s tourism industry, which annually generated US $8 billion and represented approximately 13% of the national GDP prior to unrest;
The devaluation of the Syrian pound, which had fallen 17% by August and will increasingly affect Syrians living on fixed or marginal incomes; and
Pre-existing economic conditions, such as economic inequality and uneven growth, which caused 6.7 million Syrians (33.6% of the population) to be considered impoverished by UNDP as of 2007.

The Syria Sanctions Act of 2011 represents a crucial opportunity to take action in changing the direction of governmental violence and oppression in Syria. With more questions about S. 1472, or to find out how you can get involved in advocacy efforts, please contact Maria Thomson at advocacy@standnow.org. Exercise your privilege of a democratic government and make your voice heard!

Weekly Update from the STAND Education Team

SeanLangberg — Fri, 19 Aug 2011 15:17:24 -0400

Weekly Update from the STAND Education Team

Sudan, DRC, and Syria

Sudan

President Obama announced Thursday, August 18, 2011 his nomination of Susan D. Page as the Ambassador to the Republic of South Sudan, Department of State Susan D. Page currently serves as Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for the Bureau of African Affairs. Prior to this assignment, she was Regional Director for Southern and East Africa at the National Democratic Institute.

Sudan has once again threatened to expel the UN-AU Joint Peacekeeping mission in Darfur (UNAMID) over the contents of a UN Security Council’s resolution extending the mission’s mandate. On 29 July, the UN Security Council voted the extension of UNAMID for one more year, asking the world’s largest peacekeeping operation in Sudan’s troubled region to make full use of its capabilities and prioritize the protection of civilians; safe, timely and unhindered humanitarian access. The resolution further asked Khartoum to create suitable conditions to engage a process for political dialogue in Darfur and remove a number of restrictions in freedom of expression and other rights limited by the state of emergency law imposed in the region. Sudan has quickly denounced the resolution, saying it attempts to manipulate the mission’s mandate and tarnish the image of the country.

The Enough Project released information about possible mass graves in South Kordofan on August 17^th.Following closely on the U.N. report calling for investigations into human rights violations in Sudan, the Satellite Sentinel Project, or SSP, released a report of possible mass graves in and around Kadugli, the state capital of South Kordofan, where heavy fighting has taken place since June. The evidence of these mass graves is based on satellite imagery that has been corroborated by multiple eyewitness accounts.

A new UN report has reiterated claims that human rights abuses allegedly committed during the conflict in Sudan’s state of South Kordofan may amount to “war crimes” and “crimes against humanity,” and must therefore be fully investigated. A UN official last week said that at least 200,000 people in South Kordofan have been killed, injured or forced to flee their homes and land since the fighting erupted. Al-Bashir denies any wrongdoing and denigrates the ICC as a tool of a Western conspiracy to dismantle his regime. The current governor of South Kordofan Ahmed Haroun is also wanted by the Hague tribunal. On August 14^th, a Sudanese parliamentarian accused South Sudan and the West of supporting the rebellion in the country’s southern state of South Kordofan in order to create a pretext for the deployment of UN troops.

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

Voter registration wrapped up for the November elections with 31 million registering to vote out of a total population of 71 million. This is up from 26 million registered voters in the 2006 elections. Presidential candidates also officially declared candidacy with Kabila as the frontrunner. Currently, there are two main opposition candidates and it is thought they will have to form a coalition in order to defeat Kabila.

David Aronson’s article “How Congress Devastated Congo” sparked heated debate in the DRC advocacy community. The article states the Dodd-Frank law has “unintended and devastating consequences” and criticizes the conflict-minerals narrative as simplistic. The Enough Project, led by John Pendergast and proponent of the conflict-free movement, issued a response that defended the Dodd-Frank provision which requires companies to trace supply lines of minerals mined in the DRC. The advocacy community opposed to the conflict-free exclusive narrative argue that issues such as civil society empowerment, security sector reform, and governance reform need to be addressed for real progress to be made.

Syria

Syrian leader Bashar al-Assad continued his assault on civilians following protests against his administration. Most recently, al-Assad ordered an assault on the port-city of Latakia. Warships and tanks killed more than twenty-four people before being called away from the city. In response to the ongoing violence, President Obama called for al-Assad to resign and issued new sanctions against Syria. Below are links from the US government and EU administration regarding their withdrawal of support.

http://goo.gl/IMmRx White House Fact Sheet

http://goo.gl/Geci7 Obama's statement on Syria

http://goo.gl/35rQx EU statement on Syria

http://goo.gl/KAWvu Clinton's remarks on Syria

http://goo.gl/s5LJs Executive order issuing sanctions

The education update is produced every Friday to update STAND members and the advocacy community about developments with regards to genocide and crimes against humanity. For more information contact the following:

Education Coordinator: Sean Langberg education@standnow.org

Sudan Education Coordiator: Emma Smith esmith@standnow.org

DRC Education Coordinator: Siobhan Kelley skelley@standnow.org

Emerging Crises Education Coordinator: Tom Dolzall tdolzall@standnow.org

Good Morning, South Sudan

stripathy — Mon, 11 Jul 2011 10:48:15 -0400

July 9th, 2011 by Allen Combs

Save Darfur Coalition President Tom Andrews and Senior Policy Analyst Dan Sullivan were in Juba last night for the birth of the world’s newest nation: the Republic of South Sudan. They cut a short video to try and give you a feel of what the celebration was like in the new nation’s capital. Take a look:

The United States of America Recognizes the Republic of South Sudan

stripathy — Mon, 11 Jul 2011 10:35:28 -0400

July 9th, 2011 by Martha Heinemann Bixby

This morning, President Barack Obama officially recognized the newly independent state of the Republic of South Sudan.

The White House

Office of the Press Secretary
For Immediate Release
July 09, 2011

Statement of President Barack Obama Recognition of the Republic of South Sudan:

I am proud to declare that the United States formally recognizes the Republic of South Sudan as a sovereign and independent state upon this day, July 9, 2011. After so much struggle by the people of South Sudan, the United States of America welcomes the birth of a new nation.

Today is a reminder that after the darkness of war, the light of a new dawn is possible. A proud flag flies over Juba and the map of the world has been redrawn. These symbols speak to the blood that has been spilled, the tears that have been shed, the ballots that have been cast, and the hopes that have been realized by so many millions of people. The eyes of the world are on the Republic of South Sudan. And we know that southern Sudanese have claimed their sovereignty, and shown that neither their dignity nor their dream of self-determination can be denied.

This historic achievement is a tribute, above all, to the generations of southern Sudanese who struggled for this day. It is also a tribute to the support that has been shown for Sudan and South Sudan by so many friends and partners around the world. Sudan’s African neighbors and the African Union played an essential part in making this day a reality. And along with our many international and civil society partners, the United States has been proud to play a leadership role across two Administrations. Many Americans have been deeply moved by the aspirations of the Sudanese people, and support for South Sudan extends across different races, regions, and political persuasions in the United States. I am confident that the bonds of friendship between South Sudan and the United States will only deepen in the years to come. As Southern Sudanese undertake the hard work of building their new country, the United States pledges our partnership as they seek the security, development and responsive governance that can fulfill their aspirations and respect their human rights.

As today also marks the creation of two new neighbors, South Sudan and Sudan, both peoples must recognize that they will be more secure and prosperous if they move beyond a bitter past and resolve differences peacefully. Lasting peace will only be realized if all sides fulfill their responsibilities. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement must be fully implemented, the status of Abyei must be resolved through negotiations, and violence and intimidation in Southern Kordofan, especially by the Government of Sudan, must end. The safety of all Sudanese, especially minorities, must be protected. Through courage and hard choices, this can be the beginning of a new chapter of greater peace and justice for all of the Sudanese people.

Decades ago, Martin Luther King reflected on the first moment of independence on the African continent in Ghana, saying, “I knew about all of the struggles, and all of the pain, and all of the agony that these people had gone through for this moment.” Today, we are moved by the story of struggle that led to this time of hope in South Sudan, and we think of those who didn’t live to see their dream realized. Now, the leaders and people of South Sudan have an opportunity to turn this moment of promise into lasting progress. The United States will continue to support the aspirations of all Sudanese. Together, we can ensure that today marks another step forward in Africa’s long journey toward opportunity, democracy and justice.

Congress Celebrates South Sudan Independence; Deplores Violence in Northern Sudan

stripathy — Fri, 08 Jul 2011 10:22:19 -0400

July 8th, 2011 by Allyson Neville-Morgan

On Saturday, South Sudan will become the world’s newest country. As we congratulate the people of South Sudan on the birth of their nation, we remain deeply concerned about the ongoing violence taking place in northern Sudan’s Darfur and Southern Kordofan regions. Members of Congress have also spoken out by recognizing this important moment for South Sudan, while urging the protection of civilians in areas now under attack.

Congressional statements and floor speeches are included below. We will continue to update this page.

Congress Speaks Out

On June 6, 2011 Congressman Donald Payne (D-NJ)–Ranking Member of the Africa, Global Health and Human Rights Subcommittee and Co-Chair of the Sudan Caucus–released a press statement saying in part:

"As a Ranking Member on the House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, and Human Rights, I have been committed to helping Sudan achieve peace and justice. I have worked closely with the U.S. Department of State and the international community throughout the years to ensure that South Sudan become an independent nation. The United States has been a critical partner in the peace process that led us to where we are today. Therefore, I am proud to be a part of the Presidential Delegation to participate in South Sudan’s independence ceremony. While today marks a great achievement, let us not forget to reinforce our past investment in diplomacy and development to ensure that the current progress evolves into stability and growth."

On June 7, 2011 Congressman Hank Johnson (D-GA) made the following statement on the House floor:

On June 8, 2011 both Congressman Michael Capuano (D-MA)–Sudan Caucus Co-Chair–and Congressman Chris Smith (R-NJ)–Chair of the Africa, Global Health and Human Rights Subcommittee–gave one-minute speeches on the floor of the House of Representatives.

The opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the position of STAND.

Action: In Less Than 3 Minutes You Can Help Support Civilian Protection in South Sudan

stripathy — Thu, 07 Jul 2011 10:47:44 -0400

July 6th, 2011 by Janina Pescinski

Pressure France and the UK to Ensure Effective Protection for Civilians

The United Nations Security Council is voting this week to establish a new peacekeeping mission in the soon-to-be independent Republic of South Sudan. With more than 1,800 deaths due to rebel and tribal violence throughout South Sudan so far this year, the need for a peacekeeping force that is capable of protecting civilians is great.

The current draft of the resolution authorizing the new United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) includes a Chapter 7 mandate, which equips the UN Mission with the power to take measures to maintain peace. A report issued by the Secretary General in June recommends a peacekeeping force of 7,000. However, we’re hearing reports that France and the United Kingdom are seeking to cut the number to around 3,000-4,000 troops. Without the recommended 7,000 troops the peacekeeping mission will not be able to effectively engage in civilian protection activities.

Take Action Today

Your help is needed to put pressure on France and the United Kingdom to authorize 7,000 troops for UNMISS under the Chapter 7 mandate. You can help by contacting the French and British Missions to the UN now! Contact information is included below. You can choose whichever method of outreach works best for you.

Sample message: I’m an American citizen concerned about civilian protection in South Sudan. I’m contacting you to encourage your country to support the authorization of 7,000 troops for the new peacekeeping mission in South Sudan.

UN peacekeepers in Sudan. (Photo: Albert Gonzalez Farran / UNAMID)

French Mission to the UN
Call: (212) 702-4900
Email: france@franceonu.org
Twitter: @franceonu

UK Mission to the UN
Call: (212) 745-9200
Email: UK@UN.int
Twitter: @UKUN_NewYork

UN peacekeepers in Sudan. (Photo: Albert Gonzalez Farran / UNAMID)

Signs of Hope for the Congo?

cmmassey — Mon, 21 Mar 2011 18:43:41 -0400

Written by Ben Collins

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) has fallen upon tough times for the past several hundred years. The influence of a string of oppressive rulers, coupled with its location at the heart of the largest African conflict in history, form what many observers see as the major raison d'être for the country’s current state. While “sexual violence” and “rebel groups” continue to be inseparable from the DRC in international headlines, one cannot ignore the recent events which have been showing signs of progress for the country.

One of the most publicized events in the DRC has been the groundbreaking trial of nine Congolese soldiers accused of raping 62 women in Fizi on New Years Day. Despite the outcome of the trial - which fell short of the widely expected death penalty for the accused - it marked the first time in DRC history that a Lieutenant Colonel has been sentenced to 20 years imprisonment for crimes against humanity.

The mobile court attributes its success not only to the funding by several NGOs, but also to the UN-funded City of Joy, a centre for rape victims. The newly opened centre, based in the eastern Congolese town of Bukavu, allowed for 49 victims of the New Years mass rape to gather and come forward as witnesses for the trial.

While this case proved to be monumental in domestic Congolese law, the International Criminal Court (ICC) made strides in the international arena by holding five court cases involving key rebel leaders from the DRC.

Outside the court room, central rebel leader Samuel Bisengimana of the FDLR recently peacefully surrendered to the UN mission in the Congo. His surrender is expected to bring an increase in resignations and a decrease in morale within one of the largest rebel groups plaguing the eastern DRC.

Economically speaking, the Paris Club, a group of 16 industrialized countries, recently decided to alleviate and reschedule half of the $6 billion debt owed to the group by the DRC. As a result of the debt write-off, coupled with increased investment in the country’s mining industry, the Congolese government was able to acquire a $77 million loan from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). With a $300 million investment from China for a hydroelectric power plant, and Zimbabwe now importing electricity from the DRC, it is of little surprise that the Congolese economy is expected to increase by 6.6% by the end of 2011. Although this series of fortunate events have not alleviated the DRC of its many problems, consecutive signs of progress should not be taken for granted.

http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Situations+and+Cases/Cases/
http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2011/feb/21/congo-rape-trial
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12365785
http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-02-04/congo-expects-6-8-gdp-growth-in-2011-9-9-inflation.html
http://www.voanews.com/english/news/africa/Billion-Dollar-Debt-Relief-for-DRC--85356127.html
http://www.voanews.com/policy/editorials/Another-Blow-For-Congo-Rebels--116952233.html\
http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE71A04K20110211

Extradition for Crimes Against Humanity

cmmassey — Sun, 20 Mar 2011 09:30:39 -0400

Written by Ben Collins

Headlines have recently focused on the topic of extradition, ranging from France’s expulsion of Rwandan rebel leader Callixte Mbarushimana to Germany’s excellent record on prosecuting Nazi war criminals. While many European Union (EU) countries have stepped up war criminal extradition, many reports suggest that the United Kingdom has lagged behind. The United Kingdom Border Agency (UKBA) reported that Great Britain has become a haven for suspects of war crimes, crimes against humanity, torture, and acts of genocide. Out of the 495 suspects against which the UKBA has recommended action in the past five years, 383 remain living unpunished within the borders of the United Kingdom.

The United Kingdom, along with all Member States of the EU, is a signatory to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Upon request of extradition, the United Kingdom is required by the Rome Statute to return suspects to their country of origin or to the ICC. Otherwise, it is up to British laws to investigate and prosecute suspects of such crimes. Jack Straw, a Member of Parliament from the center-left Labour Party, recently passed an act through the House of Commons allowing for the prosecution of British nationals accused of international war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide dating back to 1991. The previous law had only permitted British courts to place suspects on trial for such crimes dating back to 2001. Despite Straw’s efforts, not a single investigation into war criminal suspects has taken place since the law was enacted in 2010.

“The biggest problem,” Member of Parliament Michael McCann states, “is the lack of resources dedicated to investigating these serious cases, and that we often don't know where these individuals are. It means that if an arrest warrant is issued there is little likelihood it can be served.” The United Kingdom has only seen two successful trials on war crimes since the end of the World War II.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/law/2011/feb/04/britain-home-to-400-war-criminals

http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2009/jul/07/war-crimes-legal-powers-straw

http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebART/585-90?OpenDocument